IGCSE Notes 2019

Biomes Tundra Found mostly in Northern Canada and Russia and the outer areas of Greenland Mosses, lochens and dwarf trees grow in tundras, and the Arctic fox can be found there too Hot desert Found in Australia in Australia, Africa and the Middle East and the southern Americas and in India Has lizards, coyotes, thorny devil, desert tortoise and cactus type plants Savanna Found along equator, mostly in Africa but also South America and Australia Baobabs, eucalyptus and bushes grow in savannas and elephants, zebras, lions and crocodiles live there Coniferous Forest Found between 60° N and 40° N lives, in most of Canada and Russia A lot of fur spruces,cedars and birches grow here, with lynx, bears, owls, foxes, otters and rabbits live there Deciduous Forest Found in North America, Europe and East Asia Beeches, mosses, ferns, mushrooms grow along with the bald eagle, bears, squirrels, platypuses and deer Rainforest South America, central Africa...

Preparation for Earthquakes Prediction Weather stations - Track the movement of storms and out the data together to form predictions Weather satellites - They show cloud formations, large weather events and other global weather systems Radars - Measure reflected sound waves; give information about the speed and direction of an object's movement Preparation Have proper building design to minimize damage to property Location of settlements should be confined to areas that are safe Have a reliable warning system (radio, TV, SMS) Make sure people are properly educated Emergency Responses Getting people and bodies out of affected areas Clear away subtle and debris Restore basic services Provide medical help and counselling Organize distribution of food, water and clothing Set up shelters Provide transport Long-Term Planning Reassessing risks Improving warning systems Improving arrangements for the delivery of emergency aid Make buildings hazard-p...

Reasons for Living in High-Risk Areas Volcanic Areas Volcanic soils are very fertile People don't think it's possible for the volcanoes to erupt Some volcanoes are popular tourist destination Tradition and religion A lot of poor people can't afford to move Volcanoes provide geothermal energy Lots of money can be made from minerals Landscapes can be very pretty Earthquakes Areas Some earthquake prone areas like Turkey and Iceland are popular tourist destination People in MICs feel safe in earthquake zones because of quake proof infrastructure Some places (like California) are beautiful People don't think they'll be hurt Lack of education Some countries are more vulnerable than others to the impacts of natural hazards because they're poorer, their location makes them have disasters all the time or they're not prepared. 2005 Hurricane Katrina  more like hurricane tortilla Long-Term Effects 80% of New Orleans was flooded f...

Tropical Cyclones, Hurricanes and Typhoons What is the difference between the three? Cyclones are formed in the Indian Ocean, hurricanes in the Middle Atlantic and typhoons in the Pacific Ocean.  Cause:  Start when high temperatures cause air to rise from the surface of the sea. The rising air causes local thunderstorms, and sometimes these storms come together and create a strong flow of warm, rapidly rising air, creating an area of increasingly low pressure. (Applies to hurricanes + typhoons as well) Ocean water must be 26 degrees celsius and at least 50 metres deep to form a cyclone/hurricane/typhoon. Characteristics Have very low pressure Often 600-900 km across Bring torrential rain, thunder, lightning, and strong winds Can cause widespread damage On average last for 10 days, but can last for up to 4 weeks Have to form on large bodies of water Don't remain where formed. They follow the direction of prevailing winds and ocean cur...

Case Study: The River Tay (UK) Use of land and river: Delta on the Tay is used as a gold course. Flood plain transformed from farming to settlements; the land is flat but benefits need to be weighed against the risk of flooding. Port still has ships sailing into it. Fertile soil is ideal for arable and mixed farming. Rivers provide a transport route for inaccessible areas Water wheels used to power surrounding industries Water wheels are a tourist attraction Sheep farming Forest of pine trees River Tummel (one of Tay's tributaries) provides water and hydroelectricity Water Shortages ✩ Area of deficit - Location where rain doesn't fall enough to provide enough water on a permanent basis ✩ Area of surplus - Areas that have more water than needed ✩ Water stress - Occurs when the amount of water available doesn't meet the required amount How can water demand be met in a more sustainable way? Increase awareness More efficient housing design Taki...

Fluvial Processes Weathering Processes Physical Weathering Breaks rocks down into smaller pieces by changes in temperature and by thawing water Chemical Weathering Happens when chemicals react with water, dissolving the rock and weakening it Biological Weathering The roots of plants, especially trees, and burrowing animals split the rocks apart.  Mass movement Rock Falls: Fragments of rock are continually weathered and eroded until they separate and fall from the cliff as whole parts. Slumping: The bottom of a valley side slope is cut away by the river flowing at its base making the slope unstable and weathered material slumps down towards the river. Slumping is also helped when the weathered material on the slope is saturated by heavy rain. Soil Creep: Gravity pulls down the weathered material on the slope downwards to the river, where it is eroded.  Erosion Hydraulic Action The force of water in the channel hitting the bed...

The Hydrological Cycle During the hydrological cycle,, water is held in a number of stores and then moves between them by means of a series of flows, also called transfers. Stores The atmosphere: where the water exits either as water vapour or as minute droplets in clouds. The land: where water is stored on the surface in rivers, lakes and reservoirs. Water is taken in by plants and stored in vegetation for short periods of time. It is also stored below the ground in bedrock, known as the groundwater store. Water mostly exists in a liquid form, but it can exist in a solid form, like in glaciers. The sea: it is estimated that over 95% of Earth's water is stored in the sea, mostly in liquid form, but also ice like in icebergs. Transfers Evaporation: the hydrological cycle starts with evaporation due to the Sun. Water is converted from a liquid into a gas (called water vapour). This takes place from the surface of the sea and water surfaces on land. Evaporation is p...